BANGLADESH

People's Republic of Bangladesh
People: Population: 144,319,628. Age distrib. (%) <15: 33.1; 65+: 3.4. Pop. density: 2,596 per sq mi, 1,002 per sq km. Urban: 24.2%.Ethnic groups: Bengali 98%. Principal languages: Bangla (official, also known as Bengali), English. Chief religions: Muslim 83% (official), Hindu 16%.

Geography: Total area: 55,599 sq mi, 144,000 sq km; Land area: 51,703 sq mi, 133,910 sq km. Location: In S Asia, on N bend of Bay of Bengal. Neighbors: India nearly surrounds country on W, N, E; Myanmar on SE. Topography: The country is mostly a low plain cut by the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers and their delta. The land is alluvial and marshy along the coast, with hills only in the extreme SE and NE. A tropical monsoon climate prevails, among the rainiest in the world. Capital: Dhaka, 11,560,000. Cities (urban aggr.): Chittagong, 3,271,000; Khulna, 1,264,000.

Government: Type: Parliamentary democracy. Head of state: Pres. Iajuddin Ahmed; b Feb. 1,1931; in office: Sept. 6, 2002. Head of gov.: Prime Min. Khaleda Zia; b Aug. 15,1945; in office: Oct. 10, 2001. Local divisions: 6 divisions. Defense budget (2004): $657 mil. Active troops: 125,500.

Economy: Industries: cotton textiles, jute, garments, tea processing, newsprint, cement, chemical fertilizer, light engineering, sugar. Chief crops: rice, jute, tea, wheat, sugarcane, potatoes, tobacco. Natural resources: nat. gas, timber, coal. Crude oil reserves (2004): 56 mil bbls. Arable land: 73%. Livestock (2004): cattle: 24.5 mil; chickens: 140 mil; goats: 34.5 mil; sheep: 1.3 mil. Fish catch (2003): 1,998,197 metric tons. Electricity prod. (2003): 17.4 bil. kWh. Labor force (1996): agriculture 63%, industry 11%, services 26%.

Finance: Monetary unit: Taka (BDT) (Sept. 2005: 65.72 = $1 U.S.). GDP (2004 est.): $275.7 bil.; per capita GDP: $2,000; GDP growth: 4.9%. Imports (2004 est.): $10.0 bil.; partners (2004): India 14.6%, China 11.7%, Singapore 7.8%, Japan 5.8%, Hong Kong 4.8%. Exports (2004 est.): $7.5 bil.; partners (2004): US 22.7%, Germany 14.5%, UK 10.8%, France 6.7%. Tourism: $57 mil. Budget (2004 est.): $8.3 bil. Intl. reserves less gold: $2.04 bil. Gold: 110,000 oz t. Consumer prices: 4.6%.

Transport: Railroad: Length: 1,681 mi. Motor vehicles: 65,000 pass. cars, 145,900 comm. vehicles. Civil aviation: 2.7 bil pass.-mi; 15 airports. Chief ports: Chittagong, Dhaka, Mongla Port.

Communications: TV sets: 7 per 1,000 pop. Radios: 50 per 1,000 pop. Telephone lines: 742,000. Daily newspaper circ.: 53.4 per 1,000 pop. Internet: 243,000 users.

Health: Life expect.: 62.1 male; 62.0 female. Births (per 1,000 pop.): 30.0. Deaths (per 1,000 pop.): 8.4. Natural inc.: 2.16%. Infant mortality (per 1,000 live births): 62.6.

Education: Compulsory: ages 6-10. Literacy: 43.1%.

Major Intl. Organizations: UN (FAO, IBRD, ILO, IMF, IMO, WHO, WTrO), the Commonwealth.

Embassy: 3510 International Dr. NW 20007; 202-244-0183.

Website: www.bangladeshgov.org

Muslim invaders conquered the formerly Hindu area in the 12th century. British rule lasted from the 18th century to 1947, when East Bengal became part of Pakistan.

Charging West Pakistani domination, the Awami League, based in the East, won National Assembly control in 1971. Assembly sessions were postponed; riots broke out. Pakistani troops attacked Mar. 25; Bangladesh independence was proclaimed the next day. In the ensuing civil war, one million died and 10 million fled to India.

War between India and Pakistan broke out Dec. 3, 1971. Pakistan surrendered in the East on Dec. 16. Mujibur Rahman, known as Sheikh Mujib, became prime minister; he was killed in a coup Aug. 15, 1975. During the 1970s the country moved into the Indian and Soviet orbits in response to U.S. support of Pakistan, and much of the economy was nationalized.

On May 30, 1981, Pres. Ziaur Rahman was killed in an unsuccessful coup attempt by army rivals. Vice Pres. Abdus Sattar assumed the presidency but was ousted in a coup led by army chief of staff Gen. H. M. Ershad, Mar. 1982. Ershad declared Bangladesh an Islamic Republic in 1988; a parliamentary system of government was adopted in 1991.

Bangladesh is subject to devastating storms and floods that kill thousands. A cyclone struck Apr. 1991, killing over 131,000 people and causing $2.7 billion in damages. Chronic destitution in the densely crowded population has been worsened by the decline of jute as a world commodity. Pollution of surface water and naturally occurring contamination of groundwater by arsenic have caused widespread health problems.

Political turmoil led to the resignation, Mar. 30, 1996, of Prime Min. Khaleda Zia, the widow of Ziaur Rahman. Sheikh Mujib's daughter, Hasina

(known as Sheikh Hasina), led the country after the June 12, 1996 election. Bangladesh and India signed a treaty, Dec. 12, resolving their long-standing dispute over the use of water from the Ganges River. A cyclone in May 1997 left an estimated 800,000 people homeless. Floods in July-Sept. 1998 inundated most of the country, killed over 1,400 people (many through disease), and stranded at least 30 million.

Khaleda Zia returned to power following the parliamentary elections of Oct. 1, 2001. Floods July-Aug. 2004 caused at least 950 deaths and $7 bil. in property damage. Militant Islamists set off more than 400 small bombs in over 50 cities and towns, Aug. 17, 2005, killing 2 people and wounding at least 125.
An article from The World Almanac and Book of Facts.

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In full, People's Republic of Bangladesh, republic, S Asia, a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, in the NE portion of the Indian subcontinent, bordered on the N and E by India, on the SE by Burma, on the S by the Bay of Bengal, and on the W by India. The area of the country is 143,998 sq km (55,598 sq mi).

Geographically, historically, and culturally, Bangladesh forms the larger and more populous part of Bengal, the remainder of which constitutes the neighboring Indian state of West Bengal. From 1947 to 1971 the region of Bangladesh was a province of Pakistan. As such, its official designation was changed from East Bengal to East Pakistan in 1955. On March 26, 1971, leaders of East Pakistan declared the region independent as Bangladesh, and its independence was assured on Dec. 16, 1971, when Pakistani troops in the region surrendered to a joint force of Bangladeshi and Indian troops.

LAND AND RESOURCES

Bangladesh, a low-lying country traversed by numerous rivers, has a coastline of about 580 km (about 360 mi) along the Bay of Bengal.

Physiographic Regions.

Most of Bangladesh lies within the broad delta formed by the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers and it is exceedingly flat, low-lying, and subject to annual flooding. Much fertile, alluvial soil is deposited by the floodwaters. The only significant area of hilly terrain, constituting less than one-tenth of the nation's territory, is the Chittagong Hills in the narrow SE panhandle of the country. There, on the border with Burma, is Keokradong (1230 m/4034 ft), the country's highest peak. Small scattered hills are also along or near the E and N borders with India. The eroded remnants of two old alluvial terraces—the Madhupur Tract, in the N central part of the country, and the Barind, straddling the NW boundary with India—attain elevations of about 30 m (about 100 ft). The soil here is much less fertile than the annually replenished alluvium of the surrounding floodplain.

Rivers and Lakes.

Rivers are a prominent and important feature of the landscape in Bangladesh. Some rivers are known by different names in various portions of their course. The Ganges (Ganga), for example, is known as the Padma below the point where it is joined by the Jamuna R., the name given to the lowermost portion of the main channel of the Brahmaputra. The combined stream is then called the Meghna below its confluence with a much smaller tributary of the same name. In the dry season the numerous deltaic distributaries that lace the terrain may be several kilometers wide as they near the Bay of Bengal, whereas at the height of the summer monsoon season they coalesce into an extremely broad expanse of silt-laden water. In much of the delta, therefore, homes must be constructed on earthen platforms or embankments high enough to remain above the level of all but the highest floods. In nonmonsoon months the exposed ground is pocked with water-filled borrow pits, or tanks, from which the mud for the embankments was excavated. These tanks are a chief source of water for drinking, bathing, and small-scale irrigation.

Climate.

The climate of Bangladesh is of the tropical monsoon variety. In all areas about 80% of the annual rainfall typically occurs in the monsoon period, which lasts from late May to mid-October. Mean annual precipitation ranges from about 1400 mm (about 55 in) along the country's E central border to more than 5080 mm (200 in) in the far NE. In addition to the normal monsoonal rainfall, Bangladesh is subject to devastating cyclones, originating over the Bay of Bengal, in the periods of April to May and September to November. Often accompanied by surging waves, these storms can cause great damage and loss of life. The cyclone of November 1970, in which up to an estimated 300,000 lives were lost in Bangladesh, was one of the worst natural disasters of the 20th century. A cyclone in May 1997 left an estimated 800,000 people homeless.

Bangladesh has warm temperatures throughout the year, with relatively little variation from month to month. January tends to be the coolest month and May the warmest. In Dhaka the average January temperature is about 19° C (about 66° F), and the average May temperature is about 29° C (about 84° F).

Mineral Resources.

The mineral endowment of Bangladesh is meager. The principal energy resource, natural gas, is found in several small fields in the NE. A coalfield is in the NW and large peat beds underlie most of the delta. Limestone and pottery clays are found in the NE.

Plants and Animals.

With the exception of the Chittagong Hills, portions of the Madhupur Tract, and the Sundarbans (a great tidal mangrove swamp in the SW corner of the country), few extensive forests remain in Bangladesh, the wooded area amounting to less than one-seventh of the total area. Broadleaf evergreen species characterize the hilly regions, and deciduous trees, such as acacia and banyan, are common in the drier plains areas. Commercially valuable trees in Bangladesh include sundari (hence the name Sundarbans), gewa, sal (mainly growing in the Madhupur Tract), and garyan (in the Chittagong Hills). Village groves abound in fruit trees (mango and jackfruit, for instance) and date and areca (betel) palms. The country also has many varieties of bamboo.

Bangladesh is rich in fauna, including nearly 250 indigenous species of mammals, 750 types of birds, 150 kinds of reptiles and amphibians, and 200 varieties of marine and freshwater fish. The rhesus monkey is common, and gibbons and lemurs are also found. The Sundarbans is one of the principal remaining domains of the Bengal tiger, and elephants and many leopards inhabit the Chittagong Hills. Other animals include mongoose, jackal, Bengal fox, wild boar, parakeet, kingfisher, vulture, and swamp crocodile.

POPULATION

The vast majority of Bangladesh's inhabitants are Bengalis, who are largely descended from Indo-Aryans who began to migrate into the country from the west thousands of years ago and who mixed within Bengal with indigenous groups of various racial stocks. Ethnic minorities include the Chakma and Mogh, Mongoloid peoples who live in the Chittagong Hills; the Santal, mainly descended from migrants from present-day India; and the Biharis, non-Bengali Muslims who migrated from India after the partition.

Population Characteristics.

The estimated population of Bangladesh for 2003 was 146,736,000, making Bangladesh one of the world's ten most populous countries. It has one of the highest population densities, about 1019 persons per sq km (about 2639 persons per sq mi). Fewer than 25% of the Bangladeshi people are classified as urban. The distribution of the population is relatively even, except in the sparsely populated Chittagong Hills and the almost totally uninhabited Sundarbans. Most of the people are relatively young, some 44% being under the age of 15 and only about 3% being 65 or older. Life expectancy at birth is about 58.9 years for women and 59 years for men.

Principal Cities.

Among the major cities of Bangladesh are Dhaka, the capital, with 13,181,000 inhabitants (2001, urban agg.); Chittagong, the leading port, with 2,477,000 inhabitants (1995, urban agg.); Khulna, a center for small-scale industry, with 1,071,000 inhabitants; Rajshahi, located in a silk-producing area, with 756,000 inhabitants; and Narayanganj, the inland port for Dhaka, with 268,952 inhabitants.

Language.

The national language, Bengali, of the Indo-European family, is the first language of more than 98% of the population. It is written in its own script, derived from that of Sanskrit. Urdu is the language of several hundred thousand persons, many of whom emigrated from India in the late 1940s. A number of languages akin to Burmese are also spoken.

Religion.

Islam, the state religion, is the faith of about 87% of the population, almost all of whom adhere to the Sunni branch. Hindus make up the majority of the remainder, and the country also has small communities of Buddhists, Christians, and animists.

EDUCATION AND CULTURE

Bangladesh lacks sufficient numbers of schools and cultural institutions, even though facilities were increased substantially in the 1970s.

Education.

Public education in Bangladesh generally follows the model established by the British prior to 1947. Elementary education is free, but at least 30% of all children are not enrolled in school. Poor attendance is a major reason for a literacy rate of only 35% for Bangladeshis aged 15 and older (men 47%, women 22%). In the early 1990s the country had about 48,100 elementary schools, with an annual enrollment of some 13 million pupils, and about 9700 secondary schools, with a total yearly enrollment of nearly 3.7 million.

Bangladesh has nine universities, the largest of which is the University of Dhaka (1921). Others include Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (1962) and Jahangirnagar University (1970), both in Dhaka; Bangladesh Agricultural University (1961), in Mymensingh; the University of Chittagong (1966); and the University of Rajshahi (1953). Colleges include Bangladesh College of Textile Technology (1950), in Dhaka, and Chittagong Polytechnic Institute (1962). In the early 1990s colleges and universities together enrolled more than 760,000 students each year.

Culture.

Bangladeshi culture is, in many respects, inseparable from that of greater Bengal, and since the early 19th century a majority of the most widely read and admired Bengali writers and artists, Hindu as well as Muslim, worked for a time in the Indian metropolis of Calcutta. Greatest among these was the Hindu writer, artist, and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore.

Classical, light-classical, devotional, and popular music enjoy a wide following in Bangladesh. Classical dancing is of various Indian schools, such as bharata natyam, and indigenous folk genres are being developed.

Higher cultural life is concentrated in Dhaka, which is the site of the Bangla Academy (1972), devoted to the promotion and development of the Bengali language and literature. The country's largest libraries are in Dhaka, as is the Bangladesh National Museum, noted for its art and archaeology collections. The Varendra Research Museum, controlled by the University of Rajshahi, is an important center for archaeological, anthropological, and historical research.

ECONOMY

First as part of British India and then of Pakistan, the area now constituting Bangladesh suffered from chronic economic neglect. The region produced large quantities of agricultural goods, including much of the world's jute, but received little investment in such basic items as transportation facilities and industrial plants. Bangladesh's per capita gross national product in the early 1990s was only about $220 per year, one of the lowest in the world. In the early 1990s the annual national operating budget was estimated to include $2.5 billion in revenue and $3.7 billion in expenditure.

Labor.

The civilian labor force of Bangladesh was estimated in the late 1990s to include approximately 60.4 million persons, of whom 63% were employed in agriculture, 11% in industry and commerce, and 26% in services. Unemployment and underemployment are significant problems in the country.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing.

About 36% of the gross domestic product derives from agriculture. Most farms are small, and per capita output is low. Rice, of which two or three crops can be grown each year, is the leading food crop in all areas and accounts for at least five-sixths of the cultivated area; about 27.4 million metric tons were harvested annually in the early 1990s. Pulses, the main source of vegetable protein, are the most important food crop after rice. Various oilseeds (mainly for cooking oil), wheat, potatoes, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, bananas, mangoes, jackfruit, and pineapples also are raised.

The principal cash crop of Bangladesh is jute, which is grown throughout the annually flooded portions of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta; the annual jute harvest in the early 1990s was about 898,000 metric tons. Tea is the second most valuable cash crop, and is grown almost exclusively in the NE, around Sylhet. There are large numbers of cattle and buffalo, but they are not raised for human consumption. Dairy products and eggs are in short supply.

The leading commercial types of trees are wild sundari, gewa, and teak. Bamboo is also an important forest product.

Aquatic animals provide the primary source of animal protein in the Bangladeshi diet. Hilsa (a kind of herring) and prawns are among the principal commercial species. The yearly catch in the early 1990s was about 946,000 metric tons, which consisted mostly of freshwater varieties.

Mining and Manufacturing.

Mining and quarrying, apart from the modest production of natural gas, are of negligible importance to the economy.

The manufacturing sector, which contributes less than one-tenth of Bangladesh's annual national product, is made up principally of unmechanized, small-scale enterprises, which together employ about 7 million workers. The chief manufactures are jute products (such as cordage and sacks), textiles, processed food, beverages, tobacco items, and goods made of wood, cane, or bamboo. Large-scale factories produce fertilizer, refined petroleum, and process jute and sugarcane. Much of the nation's heavy industry, including a small steel mill, is in Chittagong.

Energy.

More than 90% of Bangladesh's electricity is generated in thermal plants using either coal, natural gas, or petroleum products, and most of the rest is produced by hydroelectric facilities, including a large installation on the Karnaphuli R. In the early 1990s the country had an installed electricity generating capacity of about 2.7 million kw, and annual production was about 8.9 billion kwh.

Currency and Banking.

The principal unit of currency in Bangladesh is the taka (57.85 taka equal U.S.$1; 2002); the taka is divided into 100 paisa. The government-run Bangladesh Bank handles central-banking operations.

Commerce and Trade.

The per capita volume of Bangladeshi internal and foreign trade is low. Domestic trade is conducted largely through periodic markets (hats). Since independence in 1971 the value of annual imports has usually been at least twice that of exports; in the early 1990s yearly imports cost about $3.4 billion, and exports earned some $2.1 billion. The country's principal exports include clothing, jute products, and raw jute; seafood, tea, and hides and leather goods are the other important exports. Imports include foodstuffs, basic manufactures, mineral fuels, machinery, and transportation equipment. Exports go mainly to the U.S., Germany, Italy, Great Britain, Japan, Belgium, and Singapore; imports come chiefly from Japan, South Korea, the U.S., Hong Kong, Singapore, India, and China. Tourism is not developed.

Transportation.

The numerous rivers of Bangladesh and the marked seasonal fluctuation in their width and depth greatly inhibit the development of an integrated road and rail transport system. Bridging the major channels is not feasible economically, and reliance on ferry connections makes most long-distance overland travel exceedingly slow. The country has some 193,300 km (some 120,100 mi) of roads, about 4% of which are paved; the road network may be severely damaged by monsoon flooding. About 130,000 motor vehicles were in use in the early 1990s. The country is served by some 2750 km (some 1710 mi) of operated railroad track.

Much of the country's domestic freight and passenger traffic is carried on inland waterways. Commercially operated navigable routes in the rainy season total at least 8050 km (at least 5000 mi), but shrink to some 4025 km (some 2500 mi) in the dry season. Small boats can navigate an additional 17,700 km (11,000 mi) in wet months. International freight traffic is handled at the ports of Chittagong and Chalna; the former leads in imports and overall value and the latter leads in exports.

Government-owned Biman Bangladesh Airlines provides international and domestic air service. The main international airport is at Dhaka.

Communications.

More than 50 daily newspapers with a combined daily circulation of 1.2 million are published in Bangladesh, mostly in Bengali and chiefly in Dhaka. The country also has hundreds of weekly and monthly periodicals. Radio Bangladesh and Bangladesh Television are under government direction. About 4.5 million radios, 350,000 televisions, and 205,500 telephones were in use during the early 1990s. J.E.S., JOSEPH E. SCHWARTZBERG, M.A., Ph.D.

GOVERNMENT

Since the nation was first formed in 1971, the government of Bangladesh has undergone a number of changes. A secular parliamentary form of democracy was established by the 1972 constitution, but it was suspended in late 1974; it was replaced in January 1975 by a presidential form of government. The 1972 constitution, as amended, was suspended once again in 1982 after a coup d'état. A ban on political activities was rescinded and the constitution reinstated in 1986.

Executive and Legislature.

In February 1991 a parliament of 300 members was elected; 30 additional seats reserved for women were subsequently filled by indirect ballot. Constitutional provisions reducing the powers of the president and restoring a parliamentary democracy, headed by a prime minister, were approved by parliament in August 1991 and ratified by popular referendum in September.

Judiciary.

The highest tribunal in Bangladesh is the supreme court, which is divided into a high court and an appellate division. The chief justice and the other justices of the supreme court are appointed by the president.

Local Government.

Bangladesh is administered in six divisions—Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Rajshahi, and Sylhet. Each division is subdivided into districts. Rural units below the district level were abolished in 1991.

Political Parties.

The principal political groups in the 1991 parliamentary elections included (in order of finish) the Bangladesh Nationalist party (BNP); an eight-party coalition led by the Awami League; the Jatiya party; and the Jamaat-e-Islami party. The BNP also won the elections of February 1996, which most opposition parties boycotted, but the Awami League captured the most seats when the elections were held again in June.

Health and Welfare.

Social services in Bangladesh are limited. The country has fewer than 2 trained physicians per 11,000 inhabitants. In the early 1990s life expectancy at birth was 56 for both men and women; the infant mortality rate was 116 per 1000 live births. Voluntary organizations conduct much of the welfare work in Bangladesh, and the country is a major recipient of foreign assistance. Population planning is a high priority for the Bangladesh government.

Defense.

Military service in Bangladesh is voluntary. In the early 1990s the nation had an army of 93,000 members, a navy of 7500, and an air force of 6500. Paramilitary forces totaled 55,000.

International Organizations.

In addition to its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations, Bangladesh is also a member of the United Nations (UN), the World Trade Organization, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference.

HISTORY

For the history of the territory prior to 1947, see India; Pakistan.

The people of East Pakistan Province declared their independence as the nation of Bangladesh on March 26, 1971, while in the midst of fighting a savage war against the central Pakistani government. The fiscal separation from Pakistan took place, with extensive assistance from India, on Dec. 16, 1971. Bangladesh was soon recognized by most other nations, although Pakistan withheld diplomatic recognition until 1974 and China did not recognize the nation until 1976. Bangladesh was admitted to the UN in 1974.

Sheikh Mujib.

The country's initial government was formed in January 1972 under the charismatic leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, known as Mujib, who became prime minister. His immediate tasks were to rebuild the war-ravaged nation, reestablish law and order, and reintegrate the numerous Bengalis returning from India. A longer-range goal was to foster economic growth in order to raise the very low living standards of the densely populated nation. In the first years of independence Bangladesh received much aid from abroad, and Mujib nationalized major industries as part of his program of developing the country along the lines of democratic socialism. He had little success, however, in improving the economy, and lawlessness prevailed.

Devastating floods destroying much of the grain crop and increasing political disorder caused a national state of emergency to be declared in late 1974. In early 1975 Mujib became president under a remodeled constitution that granted him virtually dictatorial power. He was unable to stabilize the political situation and was killed in a military coup d'état on Aug. 15, 1975.

Military Governments.

In November military leaders ousted Mujib's successor, Khandakar Mushtaque Ahmed (1918–96), who had initiated martial law, and installed Abusadat Muhammad Sayem (1916– ) as president. Gen. Ziaur Rahman assumed the presidency when Sayem resigned in 1977. Martial law was lifted in 1979, following parliamentary elections. Despite a continuing food shortage, the nation made economic progress in 1980–81.

President Rahman was assassinated in May 1981 as part of an abortive military coup. He was succeeded by Vice-President Abdus Sattar (1906–85), who won election in his own right in November. However, a military coup in March 1982 brought Gen. Hussein Muhammed Ershad (1929– ) to power. After suspending the constitution and abolishing all political parties, he ruled by martial law under a figurehead president.

A proposal by Ershad to require all schools to teach Arabic and the Koran sparked demonstrations and riots in February 1983. Later in the year limited political activities were allowed to resume; in December Ershad assumed the presidency. The long-postponed parliamentary elections took place in May 1986. Some members boycotted the initial meetings of parliament because Ershad did not lift martial law. In an October 1986 presidential election that was boycotted by opposition parties, Ershad was elected to a 5-year term with a majority of more than 80 percent. In November, after parliament passed legislation protecting his military regime from reprisals, Ershad lifted martial law and reinstated the constitution. Devastating floods in September 1988 inundated about three-fourths of the country and left an estimated 30 million people homeless.

Bangladesh in the 1990s.

Faced with rising political opposition, Ershad resigned in December 1990; he was subsequently convicted and imprisoned on charges of corruption and illegal weapons possession. In February 1991 the Bangladesh Nationalist party (BNP) won parliamentary elections, and Khaleda Zia (1944– ), widow of President Rahman, became prime minister. A cyclone in April claimed at least 70,000 lives, according to international estimates. In the mid-1990s a series of strikes organized by opposition parties hobbled the country's economy.

Violence accompanied the parliamentary elections of February 1996, which were swept by the BNP and boycotted by opposition groups. A rising tide of political protest led to the dissolution of parliament and the appointment of a neutral caretaker government. After the opposition Awami League won new legislative elections in June, Mujib's daughter Hasina Wazed (1947– ), known as Sheikh Hasina, became prime minister. Shahabuddin Ahmed (1930– ) was sworn in as president in October. In December, Bangladesh and India resolved their long-standing dispute over the allocation of Ganges water resources.

The government brought charges in April 1997 against six people for assassinating Mujib in 1975; another 14 people, all presumed dead or in exile, were also indicted. Most of those charged, including three who actually stood trial, were found guilty in 1998 in a civil court and sentenced to death by firing squad; military tribunals were set up to try the leaders of other coups. A peace treaty signed with tribal rebels in December 1997 ended a 24-year-long insurgency in the Chittagong Hills region of southeast Bangladesh. Floods between July and September 1998 left about three-fourths of the country under water and killed more than 1400 people, many because of disease.