POLISH LITERATURE

Literature of Poland, written primarily in the Polish language. Polish literary activity began in pagan times with folk literature transmitted exclusively through oral tradition. This early literature falls into two main categories: lyric poetry, devoted to merriment and the joys of living; and epic poetry, consisting of fables, animal epics, apologues, religious legends, and historical tales.

The Medieval Period.

In 966 Poland entered the sphere of Christian culture. The native pre-Christian culture of the Poles was rigorously suppressed, and, as was then customary throughout Europe, Latin literature and language became the chief subjects studied in all Polish schools. The most important early Polish works written in Latin include the Chronica, a biographical work written by an anonymous 12th-century author later called Gallus (fl. about 1113); the Chronica Polonorum, an allegorical chronicle by the 13th century Kraków bishop Wincenty Kadłubek (c. 1150–1223); and Annales, a historical work distinguished by the careful scholarship of its 15th-century author, Jan Długosz (1415–80). Vernacular works of this period include the Kazania Święokrzyskie (Sermons of the Holy Cross), fragments of prose sermons from the end of the 13th or the beginning of the 14th century; the Kazania Gnieźnienskie (Gniezno Sermons), from the 15th century; and such biblical translations as the Psałterz królowej Jadwigi (Psalter of Queen Jadwiga, also called the Psalter of Saint Florian), from the late 14th or early 15th century, and the Biblia królowej Zofii (Bible of Queen Zofia), from the 15th century. Lives of saints, often rhymed, also survive from this period. The poetry of the era comprised historical, didactic, and religious songs, proverbs, and riddles, written in both Latin and Polish. Bogurodzica (Mother of God) is considered to be the oldest Polish religious song; it has served as a battle hymn and also as the Polish national anthem. An important example of Polish secular poetry is Rozmowa mistrza ze Śmiercią (Conversation of a Master with Death), a 15th-century work containing elements of social satire.

The Renaissance.

At the end of the 15th century Polish literature began to significantly change, opening a new era, often called the golden age, of Polish literature. This was the Polish Renaissance, which lasted from about 1500 to 1600. The tradition of the medieval historians was carried on during this period by Maciej of Miechów (c. 1456–1523) in two Latin works, Tractatus de Duabus Sarmatiis (Treatise on the Two Sarmatias, 1517) and Chronica Polonorum. The same tradition was continued by Marcin Kromer (1512–89) in his Latin De Origine et Rebus Gestis Polonorum (On the Origins and Deeds of the Poles, 1555), and by Marcin Bielski (1495–1575) and Maciej Stryjkowski (1547–82), who wrote chronicles in Polish. The social and political thought of the time was manifested in the famous Latin treatise De Republica Emendanda (On the Reform of the State, 1551–54), by Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (c. 1503–72). The production of sermons and lives of saints continued during this period; the outstanding writer of these was the Jesuit Piotr Skarga (1536–1612), who followed the great tradition of classical rhetoric.

Poetry developed during this period as never before in Polish history. In the early years of the Polish Renaissance notable poetic works were written in Latin by Paweł of Krosno (d. 1518), Andrzej Krzycki (1482–1537), Jan Dantyszek (1485–1548), Mikołaj Hussowski (1475 or 1485–c. 1533), and Klemens Janicjusz (1516–43). By the middle of the 16th century, Polish had begun to supplant Latin as the literary language of the country.

Among the leading Polish writers of this era was Mikołaj Rej (1505–69), who produced, in prose as well as verse, dramatic dialogues and moralistic and didactic works including Wizerunek własny żywota człowieka poczciwego (A Faithful Image of an Honest Man, 1558), Zwierciadło (The Mirror, 1567–68), and Zwierzyniec (Bestiary, 1562). The most significant figure in Polish poetry, however, and especially in lyric poetry, was Jan Kochanowski (1530–84), who translated the Psałterz Dawidów (David's Psalter, 1578) and wrote songs, epigrams, and the notable Treny (1580; Laments, 1920), a cycle of poems in which he mourned the loss of his daughter. Kochanowski also wrote a famous play based on classical motifs, Odprawa poslów greckich (1578; The Dismissal of the Grecian Envoys, 1918).

Other poets achieved eminence in this area, among them Sebastian Fabian Klonowic (c. 1545–1602), who wrote the Latin poems Roxolania (Ruthenia, 1584), describing the life of the Ruthenians, and Victoria Deorum (Victory of the Gods, 1587), dealing with educational and moral problems. He also wrote in Polish Flis (1595; The Boatman, 1958) and Worek Judaszów (Judas's Sack, 1600), portraying particular social classes. Szymon Szymonowic (1558–1629) wrote a collection of idylls in the vernacular, and Mikołaj Sęp Szarzynski (1550–81) wrote a collection of lyric poetry, Rytmy (Rhythms, 1601), in the baroque style.

The 17th and Early 18th Centuries.

In the 17th century Polish literature began to exhibit considerable diversity. The stormy political and military history of the period found expression in numerous diaries, notably the colorful and lively Pamiętniki (Memoirs, 1690–95) of Jan Chryzostom Pasek (c. 1636–1701). Many poetical works had historical themes; for example, Niepróżnujące prożnowanie (Non-idle Idling, 1674) by Wespazjan Kochowski (1633–1700) described the military triumphs and defeats of the era. Inspired by the events of his time, Kochowski also wrote Psalmodia polska (Polish Psalmody, 1695), a prose work composed in a biblical style, and a history in Latin, Annales (1683). The patriotic epic Wojna Chocimska (The War of Khotim, 1670) by Wacław Potocki (1621–96) celebrated the victory over the Turks in 1621, and his Ogród fraszek (A Garden of Trifles, 1690–91) provides an insight into the life of the Polish gentry of the time. Samuel Twardowski (c. 1595–1661) wrote the long, rhymed chronicles Władysław IV (1649) and Wojna Domowa z Kozaki i Tatary (A Civil War with the Cossacks and the Tartars, 1681) and also Dafnis (Daphne, 1638), a dramatic idyll. Another poet, Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski (1595–1640), wrote Latin lyrics that earned him the name of “the Christian Horace.” Lyrical poems in Polish were produced by Szymon Zimorowic (1609–29), a writer of erotic idylls, and by Jan Andrzej Morsztyn (c. 1613–93), a master of poetic form who wrote the collections of verses Kanikuła (Dog Days, 1647) and Lutnia (Lute, 1661).

The 17th century in Poland was also marked by the production of comedies, such as those by Stanisław Herakliusz Lubomirski (1642–1702). Many satires were written as well, sharply criticizing the social and political scenes; foremost among the writers of these were Krzysztof (1609–55) and Łukasz Opalinski (1612–62).

The Enlightenment.

Polish literature of the Enlightenment period (about 1764 to 1795) was rationalistic, stressing empirical knowledge and promulgating social and political reforms. Among the thinkers who dealt with problems of education were Hugo Kołłątaj (1750–1812) and Stanisław Staszic (1755–1826). Fables, satires, and comedies of manners had particular significance in this era, and they were produced by almost all the prominent writers of the Polish Enlightenment. Franciszek Bohomolec (1720–84) wrote comedies based on French models. Franciszek Zabłocki (1754–1821) wrote plays about contemporary social customs; these included Fircyk w zalotach (The Fop-Suitor, 1781) and Sarmatyzm (Sarmatism, 1785). Other noteworthy playwrights were Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz (1757–1841), author of the famous political comedy Powrót Posła (The Return of the Deputy, 1790), and Wojciech Bogusławski (1757–1829), renowned as the creator of the comic opera, Cud mniemany czyli Krakowiacy i górale (A Supposed Miracle or Krakówians and Mountaineers, 1794).

Memorable satires were produced by Tomasz Kajetan Węgierski (1755–87), Adam Naruszewicz (1733–96), and Ignacy Krasicki (1735–1801). Naruszewicz and Krasicki also wrote fables influenced by classical and French models. The versatile Krasicki was the author as well of two mock heroic poems criticizing social evils, Myszeida (Mousiad, 1775) and Monachomachia albo wojna mnichów (Monachomachia or The War of the Monks, 1778). He also wrote the first Polish modern novels, Mikołaja Doświadczynskiego przypadki (The Adventures of Nicholas Doświaczynski, 1776) and Pan Podstoli (Mr. Pantler, 1778), using them to advance his program for social reform. Several poets in Poland, expressing attitudes somewhat similar to those of the French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau, stressed the life of the emotions and an interest in nature. These tendencies found expression in songs, odes, and idylls by such writers as Franciszek Dyonizy Kniaźnin (1750–1807) and Franciszek Karpinski (1741–1825).

Romanticism.

From 1795 to 1831 Polish literature exhibited such general European trends as classicism and romanticism. In the classical mode was the work of Alojzy Felinski (1771–1820), who wrote the verse tragedy Barbara Radziwiłłowna (1820) about 16th-century history, and the writings of Kajetan Koźmian (1771–1856), who produced descriptive poems and odes. Numerous romances, songs, and idylls were written in a sentimental vein during this period. Especially popular was the idyll Wiesław (1820) by Kazimierz Brodzinski (1791–1835).

The new romantic literature was influenced first by German writers and later by English poets, particularly Lord Byron. Polish romanticism reached its full maturity between 1831 and 1864. The major romantic poet who gained an enduring position in world literature was Adam Mickiewicz. Among his works were several that played the decisive role in the ultimate victory of romanticism in Poland, such as Ballady i romanse (Ballads and Romances, 1822), which used folklore motifs; Sonety Krymskie (Crimean Sonnets, 1826), describing exotic scenes; and Dziady (1823–32; Forefathers, 1968), containing folkloric and patriotic elements. In addition, Mickiewicz produced a Polish national epic, Pan Tadeusz (1834; Master Thaddeus, 1885), a poetic work of great artistic value. Juliusz Słowacki (1809–49) wrote masterpieces of lyric poetry including the impressive mystical-historical poem Król-duch (King-Spirit, 1847), and the digressive poem Beniowski (1841). He also wrote historical and symbolic dramas, among them Mazepa (1840; trans. 1929), Maria Stuart (1830; trans. 1937), and Kordian (1834). The third of the great Polish romantic poets, Zygmunt Krasinski (1812–59), earned renown for the poetic dramas Nieboska komedia (1835; The Undivine Comedy, 1924), which dealt with problems of social revolution, and Irydion (1836; trans. 1927), set in late antiquity.

Other noteworthy Polish romantic poets were Bohdan Zaleski (1802–86), author of Duch od stepu (Spirit from the Steppe, 1841); Seweryn Goszczynski (1801–76), who wrote Zamek Kaniowski (Castle of Kaniow; 1828), dealing with peasant rebellion; and Antoni Malczewski (1793–1826), author of the verse tale Maria (1825; trans. 1935). Cyprian Kamil Norwid (1821–83), writing late in the romantic period, produced the lyrical cycle Vade-Mecum (1865–66), a work significantly ahead of its time in philosophical content and artistic technique.

The romantic period led to the emergence of several literary genres. The gentry tale in prose and in verse was produced by Wincenty Pol (1807–72), Władysław Syrokomla (1823–63), and Henryk Rzewuski (1791–1866). The historical novel found an unusually prolific author in Józef Ignacy Krazewski (1812–87), who wrote Stara baśn (An Ancient Tale, 1876), Hrabina Cosel (1874; The Countess Cosel, 1901), Brühl (1875; Count Brühl, 1911), and the romantic novels Ulana and Resurrecturi. Aleksander Fredro (1793–1876) wrote works that were more classical in spirit, including the comedies Śluby panienskie (1833; Maidens' Vows, 1940), Zemsta (1834; The Vengeance, 1969), and Pan Jowialski (Mr. Jowialski, 1832).

Polish Positivism.

The second half of the 19th century is called the era of Polish positivism. The literature of this period was chiefly prose, characterized by critical realism and a concern with current patriotic and social problems. In the latter part of the era, naturalistic tendencies emerged. Bolesław Prus (pseudonym of Aleksander Głowacki, 1847–1912) wrote excellent short stories and novels, including Placówka (1886; The Outpost, 1921), Lalka (The Doll, 1890), Emancypantki (The Emancipationists, 1893), and Faraon (1897; The Pharaoh and the Priest, 1902). Eliza Orzeszkowa (1841–1910) wrote many stories and novels, among them Meir Ezofowicz (1878; trans. 1898) and the epic Nad Niemnem (On the Banks of the Niemen, 1888). Maria Konopnicka (1842–1910) wrote lyrics, stories protesting social wrongs, and Pan Balcer w Brazylii (Mr. Balcer in Brazil, 1910), a long epic poem concerning Polish emigrants.

The historical novel played an important role in Polish positivism. Henryk Sienkiewicz, who received the 1905 Nobel Prize, the first Polish writer so honored, wrote a notable trilogy, set in the 17th century and comprising Ogniem i mieczem (1884; With Fire and Sword, 1890), Potop (1886; The Deluge, 1891), and Pan Wołodyjowski (1887–88; Pan Michael, 1893). He also wrote the celebrated Quo Vadis? (1896), a novel about early Christians in Rome, and Krzyźacy (1900; The Teutonic Knights, 1943), dealing with relations between Poland and the Teutonic Order in the 15th century.

Young Poland.

In the history of Polish literature, the years from 1890 to 1918 are called the period of Young Poland. It was a time of intellectual crisis and of fin de siècle sophistication and disillusionment in the cultural world. Miriam (pseudonym of Zenon Przesmycki, 1861–1944), a translator and critic as well as the editor of the periodical Chimera, played a large role in the spreading of ideological and artistic slogans during this period, as did the novelist and playwright Stanisław Przybyszewski (1868–1927), who wrote in German as well as in Polish. Notable among the poetry of this era were the subtle lyrics of Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer (1865–1940) and the symbolical, pessimistic poems of Jan Kasprowicz (1860–1926).

In fiction, one of the most prominent artists of the Young Poland period was Władysław Stanisław Reymont, author of the novel Ziemia obiecana (1899; The Promised Land, 1927) and of Chłopi (4 vol., 1904–9; The Peasants, 1924–25), a vast epic depicting one year in the life of a Polish village. Reymont was awarded the 1924 Nobel Prize in literature. Stefan Żeromski (1864–1925) produced stories and novels emphasizing patriotism and social criticism, among them Popioły (1904; Ashes, 1928), a historical novel of the Napoleonic Wars, and Wierna Rzeka (1913; The Faithful River, 1943). Stanisław Wyspianski (1869–1907) was the most eminent dramatist of the Young Poland era. His works, often symbolic, contained an original vision of the history of Poland and a penetrating analysis of the contemporary social situation. Among his plays are Warszawianka (Varsovienne, 1898), Wyzwolenie (Liberation, 1903), Noc listopadowa (November Night, 1904), and Wesele (The Wedding), first staged in 1901.

Contemporary Developments.

After World War I Poland, which had been divided among other European powers since the 18th century, regained its independence. Poetry and prose were transformed by contact with new tendencies in world literature. World War II weakened literary activity but did not succeed in suppressing it completely. During the postwar period Poland has, in fact, produced a literature of notable richness and diversity.

Among the more prominent writers of the modern era was the poet-philosopher Leopold Staff (1878–1957), who began to write in the period of Young Poland, later producing several collections of verse in the classical spirit, such as Uśmiechy godzin (Smiles of the Hours, 1910) and Wysokie drzewa (High Trees, 1931). Another outstanding poet, Julian Tuwim (1894–1954), was particularly interested in linguistic phenomena. He left several collections of lyrics characterized by dynamism and spontaneity, including Czyhanie na Boga (Ambushing God, 1918), Sokrates tanczący (Dancing Socrates, 1920), and a digressive poem Kwiaty polskie (Polish Flowers, 1949). An English translation of his work was published in 1971 as The Dancing Socrates and Other Poems. Konstanty Ildefons Gałczynski (1906–53) based his poem Niobe (1951) on classical motifs, also producing many ironic and grotesque lyrical works. Jan Lechon (pseudonym of Leszek Serafinowicz, 1899–1956) wrote Karmazynowy poemat (Crimson Poem, 1920) as a reaction to World War I. Władysław Broniewski (1898–1962) continued the tradition of revolutionary poetry in the verse collections Troska i pieśn (Heavy Heart and Song, 1932) and Krzyk ostateczny (The Last Cry, 1938).

Among the later generation of Polish poets, notable figures include the moralist poet and playwright Tadeusz Różewicz (1921– ), who is noted for his protests against the cruelties of war, and Zbigniew Herbert (1924–98), one of the greatest modern Polish poets, who dealt with problems of modern civilization and history. His most well-known poem, “The Elegy of Fortinbras,” was translated and published in Selected Poems (1977).

Poland's two Nobel Prize–winning poets are Czesław Miłosz, who lived in the U.S. from 1960 to 1989, when he returned to Poland, and Wisława Szymborska. Miłosz's Selected Poems, translated by various hands, was published in 1973. The Separate Notebooks (1984) is a bilingual edition of more recent poetry and some from the war years. Miłosz was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature in 1980 for his erudite, challenging verse, which reflects the spiritual pain of exile. The prose work The Land of Ulro (1977; trans. 1984) continues his examination of his plight. Miłosz's Issa Valley (1955; trans. 1978) is a semiautobiographical novel distinguished for its poetic mythical evocation of a Lithuanian childhood. In awarding Szymborska the Nobel Prize in literature in 1996, the Swedish Academy praised her “wealth of inspiration and the veritable ease with which her words seem to fall into place.” Two collections of her poetry in English translation, Sounds, Feelings, Thoughts: Seventy Poems (trans. 1981) and People on a Bridge (1986; trans. 1990), are notable for sparse styling and an emphasis on the interior life. View with a Grain of Sand (1995) is an anthology of her poetry from early volumes—such as Calling Out to Yeti (1957), Salt (1962), and No End of Fun (1967)—to The End and the Beginning (1993).

Pope John Paul II (Karol Jozef Wojtyła) is also a distinguished writer in his native Polish. Among his several published works are religious poetry such as Easter Vigil and Other Poems (1978; trans. 1979) and some drama.

The leading prose writers include Maria Dabrowska (1892–1965), author of the roman-fleuve Noce i dnie (Nights and Days, 1932–34), a vast family chronicle from the years preceding World War I; Zofia Nalkowska (1885–1954), writer of novels on social and psychological themes, such as Granica (Boundary Line, 1935) and Medaliony (Medallions, 1946), about the Nazi occupation of Poland; and Jerzy Andrzejewski (1909–83), author of Popioł i diament (1948; Ashes and Diamonds, 1962), a novel (later made into a film) dealing with Polish reality after World War II, and also of the satirical novel Idzie skacząc po górach (1963; A Sitter for Satyr, 1965.) Also important are Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz (1894–1980), creator of the autobiographical novel Sława i chwała (Glory and Vainglory, 1956–62), known also as a poet and a short-story writer; and Kazimierz Brandys (1916–2000), author of a cycle of psychological novels Między wojnami (Between the Wars, 1947–51), about the Polish intelligentsia, and of a novel in the form of a diary, Listy do Pani Z (Letters to Madam Z, 1958–60). Teodor Parnicki (1908–88) wrote such historical novels as Słowo i ciało (The Word and the Flesh, 1959) and Tylko Beatrycze (Only Beatrice, 1962), dealing with the interplay of various cultures, mostly in antiquity.

Parody, absurd humor, and the grotesque are a distinct phenomenon in contemporary Polish literature, particularly in the works of Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz (1885–1939), author of many novels and grotesque plays, including the political parable Szewcy (The Cobblers, 1948); Witold Gombrowicz (1904–69), whose novels expose ideological stereotypes, as in Ferdydurke (1937; trans. 1961) and Kosmos (1965; Cosmos, 1967); and Sławomir Mrożek (1930– ), author of plays that reveal the truth about contemporary human reality through surrealistic deformation, as in Policja (1958; The Police, 1967), Na pełnym morzu (1960; Out at Sea, 1967), and Tango (1965; trans. 1968).

Science fiction is also popular in Poland today, the works of Stanisław Lem (1921–2006) being particularly outstanding. Lem's work, based on a solid scientific and philosophical training, is represented in The Cosmic Carnival of Stanisław Lem: An Anthology of Entertaining Stories by the Modern Master of Science Fiction (1981). A later work, Imaginary Magnitude, published in translation in 1984, is a learned satire on cultural history and critical writing.

In addition to the production of longer works, contemporary Polish literature is characterized by the popularity of such genres as the fable, the philosophical parable, the essay, and the aphorism; the most prominent writer in the last genre is Stanisław Jerzy Lec (1909–66). An anthology of his work—Unkempt Thoughts (1959; trans. 1967)—has been issued. E.S-T., ELZBIETA SARNOWSKA-TEMERIUSZ, Ph.D. & W.We., WIKTOR WEINTRAUB, M.A., Ph.D.